Causal Associations Between Modifiable Risk Factors and the Alzheimer’s Phenome.

The purpose of this study was to infer causal relationships between 22 previously reported risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the “AD phenome”: AD, AD age of onset (AAOS), hippocampal volume, cortical surface area and thickness, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of amyloid-β (Aβ42 ), tau, and ptau181 , and the neuropathological burden of neuritic plaques, neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and vascular brain injury (VBI).